The Animate and The Inanimate

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Tulving, E. (1985). Memory and consciousness. Canadian Psychologist, 26, 1–12. doi: 10.1037/h0080017 Gardiner, J. M., Ramponi, C., & Richardson-Klavehn, A. (1999). Response deadline and subjective awareness in recognition memory. Consciousness and Cognition, 8, 484–496. doi: 10.1006/ccog.1999.0409 Spanish direct-object pronouns ( me, te, lo, la, se, nos, os, los, las) do not differentiate between animate and inanimate entities, and only the third persons have a gender distinction. Thus, for example, the third-person singular feminine pronoun, la, could refer to a woman, an animal (like mariposa, butterfly), or an object (like casa, house), if their genders are feminine. [6] As far as the animacy effects in long-term memory are concerned, the possibility still exists that we are victims of confounding variables—namely, that we think we have shown a genuine animacy effect, when this effect is in fact driven by (an)other, uncontrolled variable(s). a b "Sidis Could Read at Two Years Old; Youngest Harvard Undergraduate Under Father's Scientific Forcing Process Almost from Birth. Good Typewriter at Four; At 5 Composed Text Book on Anatomy, in Grammar School at 6, Then Studied German, French, Latin, and Russian". The New York Times. October 18, 1909. p.7.

A., Flykt, A., & Esteves, F. (2001a). Emotion drives attention: Detecting the snake in the grass. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 130, 466–478. doi: 10.1037/0096-3445.130.3.466 In general, Arabic divides animacy between عاقل (thinking, or rational) and غير عاقل (unthinking, or irrational). Animals fall in the latter category, but their status may change depending on the usage, especially with personification. Different writers might use الغربان يطيرون إلى ألمانيا ( Al-ġurbān yaṭīrūn ’ilā ’Almāniyā) or الغربان تطير إلى ألمانيا ( Al-ġurbān taṭīr ’ilā ’Almāniyā) for "The ravens fly to Germany." Sidis, William James. The Concept of Rights. American Independence Society . Retrieved November 26, 2014– via Sidis.net. After returning to the East Coast in 1921, Sidis was determined to live an independent and private life. He only took work running adding machines or other fairly menial tasks. He worked in New York City and became estranged from his parents. It took years before he was legally cleared to return to Massachusetts, and he was concerned for years about his risk of arrest. He obsessively collected streetcar transfers, wrote self-published periodicals, and taught small circles of interested friends his version of American history. In 1933, Sidis passed a Civil Service exam in New York, but scored a low ranking of 254. [22] In a private letter, Sidis wrote that this was "not so encouraging". [22] In 1935, he wrote an unpublished manuscript, The Tribes and the States, which traces Native American contributions to American democracy. [23] Bonin, P., Fayol, M., & Chalard, M. (2001). Age of acquisition and word frequency in written picture naming. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 54A, 469–489. doi: 10.1080/02724980042000219Animacy functions as a subgender through which noun cases intersect in a phenomenon called syncretism, which here can be either nominative-accusative or genitive-accusative. Inanimate nouns have accusative forms that take on the same forms as their nominative, with animate nouns marked by having their accusative forms resemble the genitive. [5] Sidis, William James. "Native American History". The Tribes and the States . Retrieved May 25, 2011– via Sidis.net.

Shortly after graduation, Sidis told reporters: "I want to live the perfect life. The only way to live the perfect life is to live it in seclusion". He granted an interview to a reporter from the Boston Herald. The paper reported Sidis's vows to remain celibate and never to marry, as he said women did not appeal to him. Later he developed a strong affection for Martha Foley, and enrolled at Harvard Graduate School of Arts and Sciences. [14] Teaching and further education (1915–1919) [ edit ] Bates, Stephen (June 20, 1926). "Youthful Prodigies at Genius Meeting" (PDF). The New York Times. p.8 . Retrieved January 16, 2023. Yang, J., Wang, A., Yan, M., Zhu, Z., Chen, C., & Wang, Y. (2012). Distinct processing for pictures of animals and objects: Evidence from eye movements. Emotion, 12, 540–551. doi: 10.1037/a0026848 Lipp, O. V., Derakshan, N., Waters, A. M., & Logies, S. (2004). Snakes and cats in the flower bed: Fast detection is not specific to pictures of fear-relevant animals. Emotion, 4, 233–250. doi: 10.1037/1528-3542.4.3.233

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Evans, G., Lambon Ralph, M., & Woollams, A. (2012). What’s in a word? A parametric study of semantic influences on visual word recognition. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 19, 325–31. doi: 10.3758/s13423-011-0213-7 The goal of this experiment was to replicate Nairne et al.’s ( in press) finding of better free recall of words denoting animate than inanimate items. In contrast to their experiment, we used an incidental rather than an intentional encoding memory task. The participants were first presented with words and had to categorize each one as animate or inanimate. Categorization times were recorded. The categorization task was followed by two interference tasks. Finally, the participants were given an (unexpected) free-recall task. The distinction between incidental and intentional memory involves differences in self-initiated strategies while encoding episodic information (Kirchhoff, 2009). Explicitly instructing participants to encode information enables them to initiate encoding strategies (i.e., intentional encoding). Although both incidental and intentional learning occur in everyday life, the former is more prevalent, in that people generally observe events and activities without explicit instructions to remember them. Method Participants Cutler, A. (1981). Making up materials is a confounded nuisance, or: Will we be able to run any psycholinguistic experiments at all in 1990? Cognition, 10, 65–70. doi: 10.1016/0010-0277(81)90026-3 Some consider the system to be based on marking inanimacy in which case the gen-acc distinguishes a "non-inanimate" subgender of nouns and modifiers, [5] and others claim that ultimately it is indeed animacy that is marked. [4] Sinhala [ edit ] According to Nairne ( in press), the criticisms raised against the evolutionary account of the survival memory advantage have come from a misunderstanding between ultimate and proximate explanations. Without going into the details of the line of argument, he defines ultimate explanations as “statements about the function of a trait and ‘why’ it would have been selected by nature during an evolutionary process,” whereas proximate explanations “focus on the mechanisms that produced the trait—that is, they are statements about ‘how’ the trait works and the condition under which the trait is likely to be expressed” (p. 309). Following this distinction, memory evolved because it solved specific problems related to fitness (e.g., remembering information processed for its survival value as indexed by the survival memory paradigm). One consequence of memory system evolution is that information relevant to survival would be afforded special status. However, the proximate mechanisms underpinning the retention advantages may well be elaborative, distinctive or self-related encoding.

Nairne, J. S., Pandeirada, J. N. S., & Thompson, S. R. (2008). Adaptive memory: The comparative value of survival processing. Psychological Science, 19, 176–180. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02064.x Wheeler, M. A., Stuss, D. T., & Tulving, E. (1997). Toward a theory of episodic memory: The frontal lobes and autonoetic consciousness. Psychological Bulletin, 121, 331–354. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.121.3.331 In our study, animate words were given SER ( M = 3.00, SD = 0.81) that did not differ reliably from inanimate words ( M = 3.08, SD = 0.67), t< 1. It was also the case in the Nairne et al. ( in press) study ( M = 3.04, SD = 0.82, vs. M = 3.38, SD = 0.46), t< 1. Animate words were categorized reliably faster ( M = 960 ms, SD = 219) than inanimate words ( M = 1,064 ms, SD = 234), t(39) = 5.58, p< .001. More animate words were correctly recalled ( M = 4.78, SD = 2.08) than inanimate words ( M = 2.08, SD = 1.40), yielding a reliable main effect of the Type of Word factor, t(39) = 7.50, p< .001. With regard to extralist intrusions, animate words ( M = 1.05, SD = 1.08) did not yield more intrusions than inanimate ones ( M = 1.10, SD = 0.90), t(39) = 0.24. In Experiment 4, we tested whether the animacy effect in memory could be driven by the fact that animate entities are richer in terms of sensory experience than inanimate items. To do this, we collected SER for the words used in Experiments 1 and 2 plus the French translation of the words used in Nairne et al.’s ( in press) Experiment 2.A group of 56 adults (mean age = 43 years) participated in the study. They were taken from a larger pool of participants (mostly university students but also people from surrounding areas) than in the previous experiments. Stimuli Kroneisen, M., & Erdfelder, E. (2011). On the plasticity of the survival processing effect. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 37, 1553–1562. doi: 10.1037/a0024493 Sidis was a " peridromophile", a term he coined for people fascinated with transportation research and streetcar systems. He wrote a treatise on streetcar transfers, Notes on the Collection of Transfers, that identified means of increasing public transport usage. [31] In 1930, Sidis received a patent for a rotary perpetual calendar that took into account leap years. [32]

Paivio, A., & Csapo, K. (1973). Picture superiority in free recall: Imagery or dual coding? Cognitive Psychology, 5, 176–206. doi: 10.1016/0010-0285(73)90032-7 The location of the split (the line which divides the inherently agentive participants from the inherently patientive participants) varies from language to language, and, in many cases, the two classes overlap, with a class of nouns near the middle of the hierarchy being marked for both the agent and patient roles. Brosch, T., & Sharma, D. (2005). The role of fear-relevant stimuli in visual search: A comparison of phylogenetic and ontogenetic stimuli. Emotion, 5, 360–364. doi: 10.1037/1528-3542.5.3.360Smith, Shirley (July 19, 1944). "Letter to the Editor". Boston Traveler . Retrieved May 25, 2011– via Sidis.net. Although nouns in Japanese are not marked for animacy, it has two existential/ possessive verbs; one for implicitly animate nouns (usually humans and animals) and one for implicitly inanimate nouns (often non-living objects and plants). The verb iru ( いる, also written 居る) is used to show the existence or possession of an animate noun. The verb aru ( ある, sometimes written 在る when existential or 有る when possessive) is used to show the existence or possession of an inanimate noun. Heinze, Andrew R. (2006). Jews and the American Soul: Human Nature in the Twentieth Century. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-12775-0. Sidis taught three classes: Euclidean geometry, non-Euclidean geometry, and freshman math (he wrote a textbook for the Euclidean geometry course in Greek). [15] After less than a year, frustrated with the department, his teaching requirements, and his treatment by students older than himself, he left his post and returned to New England. When a friend later asked him why he had left, he replied, "I never knew why they gave me the job in the first place—I'm not much of a teacher. I didn't leave: I was asked to go." Sidis abandoned his pursuit of a graduate degree in mathematics and enrolled at Harvard Law School in September 1916, but withdrew in good standing in his final year in March 1919. [16] Politics and arrest (1919–1921) [ edit ] Kirchhoff, B. A. (2009). Individual differences in episodic memory: The role of self-initiated encoding strategies. Neuroscientist, 15, 166–179. doi: 10.1177/1073858408329507